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On Holding the Space


Carl Rogers on Empathy and Presence: 



  • References for the theories supporting the concept of attachment theory and "holding the space"


  • Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and Loss: Volume 1. Attachment. New York: Basic Books.


    In this foundational work, John Bowlby introduces the concept of a therapist as the "secure base," providing clients with a safe environment to explore and process difficult emotions.

  • Porges, S. W. (2011). The Polyvagal Theory: Neurophysiological Foundations of Emotions, Attachment, Communication, and Self-Regulation. New York: W.W. Norton & Company

  • Stephen Porges discusses how a therapist's calm and attuned presence can help shift a client's nervous system into a state of safety, facilitating emotional processing.
  • Geller, S. M., & Porges, S. W. (2014). Therapeutic presence: Neurophysiological mechanisms mediating feeling safe in therapeutic relationships. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 24(3), 178–192.


  • Containment Theory: Bion, W. R. (1962). Learning from Experience. London: Heinemann.
    Wilfred Bion explores the idea of the therapist "containing" a client's difficult emotions, processing them internally, and reflecting them back in a manageable way, aiding the client's understanding of their experiences.

  • Carl Rogers emphasizes the importance of unconditional positive regard, empathy, and congruence (authenticity) in therapy, all of which are essential components of "holding the space" for clients.

Polyvagal Theory:




Empathy as the Strongest Predictor for positive therapeutic outcome: under the common factor of therapeutic alliance

Elliott, R., Bohart, A. C., Watson, J. C., & Greenberg, L. S. (2011). Empathy. Psychotherapy, 48(1), 43–49.

DOI: 10.1037/a0022187


Elliott, R., Greenberg, L. S., & Watson, J. C. (2013). Research on humanistic-experiential psychotherapies. Bergin & Garfield’s Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behavior Change, 6, 495–538.


Malouff, J. M., & van Berkhout, E. T. (2016). The efficacy of empathy training: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 63(1), 32–41.

DOI: 10.1037/cou0000093





Attunement and Its Role in Therapy

Schore, A. N. (2012). The science of the art of psychotherapy. W. W. Norton & Company.



Porges, S. W. (2011). The polyvagal theory: Neurophysiological foundations of emotions, attachment, communication, and self-regulation. W. W. Norton & Company.

DOI: 10.1037/0735-7044.121.5.873



Geller, S. M., & Porges, S. W. (2014). Therapeutic presence: Neurophysiological mechanisms mediating feeling safe in therapeutic relationships. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 24(3), 178–192.





Resonance as a Deepening Factor

Fosha, D. (2000). The transforming power of affect: A model for accelerated change. Basic Books.



Siegel, D. J. (2012). The developing mind: How relationships and the brain interact to shape who we are (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.

DOI: 10.1007/978-1-60623-485-8



Badenoch, B., & Gantt, S. P. (2018). The interpersonal neurobiology of group psychotherapy and group process. W. W. Norton & Company.